Saturday, February 28, 2009
interior notebook
BASIC BUILDING STRUCTURE:
Components of building: A building can be broadly divided into two parts
1) Sub structure, 2) super structure.
The portion of the building below the surrounding ground is known as “sub structure”.
The portion above the ground is termed as “super structure”
The components of a building can be broadly summarized as
1) Foundation, 2) Plinth, 3) Walls, 4) Columns, 5) Floors, 6) Doors, windows, ventilators, 7) Stairs, 8) Roof, 9) Building finishes, 10) Building services.
Foundation: It is the lowest part of a structure which provides a base for the super structure.
These term includes the position of the a structure below the ground level as well as the artificial arrangement of concrete blocks, pipes, rafts, grillage, etc,
Provided to transmit the loads of the structure including the dead weight of the structure itself to the soil below.
Purpose of foundation:
It is often misunderstood that the foundation is provided to support the load of the structure
Infact, it is a device to transmit the load of the structure to the soil below.
Foundation is provided for the following four purposes:
1. To distribute the weight of the structure over large area. So, as to avoid overloading of soil beneath.
2. To provide a leveled surface for building operation.
3. To take the structure deep into the ground and thus, increase its stability preventing over turning.
The provision of foundation is made in such away that the soil below the foundation is not stressed beyond it’s save bearing capacity. Depending upon the type of soil existing at site, its sate bearing capacities and the type of building which is required to be constructed, A structures may need shallow(not so deep) or deep foundation.
In case of load bearing walls the foundation could be in the form of spread footing.
For frame structure the foundation could be in the form of independent column footing.
Plinth: The horizontal projection of stone or brick provided at the base of the wall above ground level is known as “plinth”. It rises the level of the ground floor of the building above natural ground level is known as “plinth level”. With the aim of projecting the ground floor from rain water and other weather effects.
Walls: Walls are provided to enclose or to divide the floor space in desired pattern.
In addition walls provide privacy security and gives protection against sun, rain, cold and other adverse effect of weather.
The division of floor space varies according to the functions required to be performed in the building.
In a well planned layout, the wall divides the space in such a manner so as to achieve maximum carpet area and minimum area of circulation.
Walls are constructed by use of building units like bricks, stone, concrete blocks (hollow or solid)
The building units are bounded together with mortar in horizontal and vertical joints and the construction is known as “masonry”.
When bricks are used as building units it is known as “Bricks Masonry”.
When stones are used as building units it is known as “Stone Masonry”.
Walls can be broadly divided into two categories
1. Load bearing walls
2. Non load bearing walls
1. Load bearing walls: A walls designed to carry superimposed load from the floor and roof is termed as “L.b.w”.
2. Non load bearing walls: An n.l.b.w. on the other hand causes its own weight and is not designed carry any superimposed load from the structure. They are normally provided as the partition wall.
Columns: A columns may be defined as an isolated vertical load bearing member. The width of which is neither less than its thickness or more than four time its thickness.
Pier: Pier is a vertical load bearing member similar to a column except that it is bounded into load bearing walls.
At the sides to form an integral part an extends to the height of the wall.
A pier is introduced to increase the stiffness of the wall to carry additional load or to carry vertical concentrated load. Pier also strengthens the wall to resist lateral pressure without buckling.
Floors: floors are flat supporting elements of a building. They divide a building into different level there by creating more accommodation on a given plot of land. The basic purpose of a floor is to provide a firm and dry platform for people. And other items like furniture’s, stores, equipment, etc. floor is generally reforded to by its location. A floor provided for accommodation below the natural the ground level is termed as the basement floor. A floor immediately above the ground is termed as ground floor. And all other floor such as 1st, 2nd floor etc. are termed as upper floor. A floor basically consist of 2 parts namely
1. Sub floor, 2.Flooring.
The sub floor is the structural component of the floor which support all the loads (dead and superimposed) and flooring is covering layer of desired specification (cement –concrete, terrazzo, tiles etc) provided over the sub floor to serve as a finishing layer.
Door, Windows and Ventilators:
A door may be defined as a barrier secured in and opening left in a wall to provide usual means of access to a building, room or passage this can be termed as most contently used moving component in a building.
A door normally consist of two component namely
1. Door frame, 2. Door shutter.
The door frame is permanently help in position and fixed to the masonry of the opening with the help of hold fast or rawl plugs. Shutter is the moving part of the door. Doors are made out of material like wood, steel, aluminums, plastic, flexible, rubber etc. they can be side hung, sliding, folding, revolving, or rolling type. Depending upon the functioning requirements.
A window may be defined as an opening made in walls for the purpose of providing day light, vision, & ventilation. Similar to door a window has framed and one or more shutter. The shutters are normally fitted with glass or similar transparent material. The windows can be side hung, top or bottom hung, lowered type, pivoted, metal window, bay windows, dormer window, sky light window. The shutter can be fully glazed, paneled & glazed or fully paneled type.
Stairs: A stair may be defined as a structure comprising of a number of steps connecting one floor to another. The stair must be constructed in such a manner that it is safe and comfortable to use and it should be so located as to permit easy communication. Stairs may be made from material like timber, bricks, steel, reinforced concrete etc. The selection of a type of material to be used depends upon the aesthetical importance, funds availability and fine resistance qualities desired.
Roof: It is the uppermost component of a building and its main function is to cover the space below and protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind, etc. A roof basically consists of two components namely
1. The roof decking, 2. The roof covering
The roof decking is the structure component which supports the roof covering. A roof can be either flat, pitched or curved in shape. The choice of the type of roof is made keeping in view of the location of the building, weather condition, funds available and function and aesthetics requirement. The structural component or roof decking in case of pitch roof is generally a rest, in case of curve roof it is a shell or dome and in case of flat roof it is a flat slab. The roof covering or roofing which is provided over pitched roof could be in the form of tiles, states, A.C sheets, G.I sheets etc. In case of flat roofs, the roof covering is termed as terracing, which could comprise of a layout of varying thickness of material like lime concrete, mud phuska etc. the terracing serves dual purpose I.e. 1.of providing suitable slopes on the roof top for draining of rain water 2. Of acting as consultation layer for providing thermal comport of the users of the space below.
Footing: A foundation unit constructed in bricks work, masonry or concrete under the base of a wall or column for the purpose of distributing the load over a large area.
Loft: An intermediary floor space created by introduction of a slab between floor and ceiling of a room. Passage and wherever it is provide with maximum clear height of 1.5mt. For storage purpose only.
Parapet: A low wall or railing build along the edge of roof or a floor.
Mezzanine floor: An intermediate floor between two floor level above ground floor and at least one side of it should form an integral part of space floor.
Porch: A covered surface supported on pillars for the purpose of pedestrian or vehicle approach to the building.
Chajja or sunshades: A sloping or horizontal structural over hand usually provided over opening on external wall for protection from sun and rain.
External wall: An outer wall of the building not being partition wall even through a joining to a wall of another building and also means a wall abutting on an interior open space of any building.
Court yard: A space permanently open to the sky enclosed fully or partially by building and may be at ground level or any level within or adjacent to a building.
Partition: An interior non load bearing wall.
Storey: The position of a building included between the surface of any floor and the surface of the floor meant above it.
Drain: Line of pipes including all fittings and equipment such as manholes, inspection chambers, traps. Used for drainage of the building. Drain shall also include open channel used for carriage of surface bottom.
Drainage: The removal of any liquid by a system constructed for their purpose.
Balcony: A horizontal cantilevered projection including a hand rail or balustrade to serve as passage or sitting out place.
Sill: It is the horizontal member of brick stone, concrete or wood provided to give support for the vertical member of a window. It is also employed for the purpose of shielding of rain water from the face of the wall immediately below the window opening.
Lintel: A horizontal member of stone, bricks, wood, steel, or R.C.C. uses to support the masonry or load above an opening.
Coping: Coping is a covering placed on the exposed top of an external wall. It is essentially provided to present seepage of water. The joints of the top most course of the wall. It may be of concrete, stone, bricks or terracotta.
Throating: It is a term applied to the groove that on the under side of a projection course of masonry in order to check the seepage of rain water from the under side of projection portion.
Cantilever: The projection of the beam which support the balcony.
BRICKS:
TECHNICAL TERMS:
Header: It is a brick or stone which lies with its greatest length at right angle to the face of the work. In case of stone masonry, header is sometime is known as “True stone”. The course of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as header is known as “header course”.
Stretcher: It is a brick or a stone which lies with its longest side parallel to the face of the work. The course of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers is known as “stretcher course”.
Course: A course is a horizontal layer of a bricks or stones.
Bed: This is a surface of a stone or a brick perpendicular to the line of a pressure. It indicates the lower surface of a brick in each layer of course.
Back: The inner surface of a wall which is not exposed is called “Back”.
Face: The exterior of a wall exposed to weather is known as “Face”. The material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.
Hearting: It is the exterior portion of wall between the face and back.
Joint: It is a junction of two or more bricks or stones. If the joint is parallel to the bed of brick or stones in a course. Then it is known as “Bed joining”. The joints which are perpendicular to the bed joint are known as “vertical joint”, “side joints”, “and joints”.
Bond: This is the method of arranging bricks. So, that the individual units are tied. (Bonded) together. Bonding is essential to eliminate continuous vertical joints both in body as well as the face of the wall.
Spalls: These are the chips of stones used for filling (The gaps between bricks) interstices in stone masonry.
Bat: It is the portion of brick cut across its width.
Frog: It is an indentation (depression) on the top face of a brick made with the object of forming a key for the mortar. This reduces the weight of the brick also.
Plinth: It is a horizontal course of stone or brick provided at the base of the wall above the ground level. It indicates the height of the ground floor level above the natural ground level. It protects the building from dampness.
Plinth Course: It is the top most part of the plinth masonry.
String Course: It is the horizontal projected course of masonry projecting from the face of the wall for shedding rain water of the face. It imparts an aesthetic appearance to the structure and is generally provided at every floor level.
Sill: Sill is the horizontal member of stone, concrete stone or wood employed for the purpose of shedding of rain water. From the face of wall immediately below the opening. It support to vertical member of a wooden frame.
Lintel: It is a horizontal member of stone, brick, wood, iron, or R.C.C used to support the masonry or load above an opening.
Jambs: These are the vertical sides of an opening for doors and windows. These may be plane or may be provided with to resist to receive the door frame or window frame.
Reveals: These are the exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the door or window frame is fixed in position.
Cornice: It is the projecting horizontal ornamental course near the top of the building at the junction of wall and building.
Blocking Course: It is the top most course of a stone masonry provided immediately above the corners to prevent the tendency of the cornice to over turn.
Coping: It is the course placed upon the exposed top of an external wall to prevent the seepage of water.
Buttress: It is the sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall intended from a tall the wall against the thrust of the roof.
Pier: It is an isolated vertical mass of stone or brick masonry to support beams, lintel etc.
Template: Pieces of stones placed under the end of the beam to distribute weight on to a greater area.
Corbel: It is an extension of one or more course of stone or brick from the face of a wall to serve as a support for wall plate.
Queen Closure: It is the portion of a brick obtains by cutting a brick length wise into two portions.
King Closure: It is the portion of a brick obtains by cutting of the triangular piece between the centre of one end and the centre of one side.
Beveled Closure: It is the portion of a brick obtains by the whole length of the brick is beveled. For maintaining half width at one end and full width at other end.
BRICKS MASONRY
It is united mass obtained by systematic arrangement of bricks and bonding them together with mortar. Bricks are a building unit of hard inorganic clay material of a size which can be conveniently handled.
Bricks can be use for various construction purposes and can be easily arranged in various shapes for most of the structures like foundation, walls, columns, buttress, retaining structures, window sells, coping, ornamental brick work, fire places. Tall chimneys, thresholds, steps, floors, arch, etc.
The strength of the brick masonry depends upon the quality of brick and type mortar used.
MORTAR:
Mortar is a pasty material formed by the addition of water mixer composed of an aggugate building material which may be handling with a trowel (thapi). The mortar unites the individual bricks together.
They are different types of mortars in used
1. Mud Mortar
2. Cement Mortar
3. Lime Mortar
4. Cement Mortar
5. Lime Surkhi Mortar
Mud mortar is used for temporary construction.
Cement mortar is used for permanent structures.
In order to select a suitable type of mortar for a given construction. We must know the type of desired finish. The magnitude and mortar of super imposed load.
The effect of the weathering agencies and the important of structures.
In different parts of country, bricks used as length varying from 15cm to 25cm width 9cm to 20cm and the height 5cm to 10cm. Hence separate specifications are available with different department.
Indian stand institution has suggested a uniform brick size for the whole country these is popularly known as modular brick normal size of modular brick is 20x10x10cm and the actual size 19x9x9cm.
These bricks are economical to manufacture require less area for drawing.
Characteristics of a good brick:
1. The brick should be compacting homogenous free from holes, crack, air bubbles, flaws, and stone lumps.
2. It should be well burned.
3. It should produced good sound when collides with other brick.
4. It should have uniform colors.
5. It should be tough and hard.
6. It should have finish surfaces on all the sides.
7. Bonding is the process of arranging bricks with mortar to tie them together in the mass of brick work.
8. It should have minimum of vertical joints in any part of the work.
9. It shouldn’t be continuous in two successive courses.
Characteristics of brick bond:
The brick masonry should have the brick of uniform size and shape.
The length of the brick should be equal to the twice the width of the brick. (4.5+4.5=9”).
The use of the brick bat should be discouraged.
The vertical joints in the alternate courses should be vertically above each other.
The stretchers should be only used in the facing while hearting should be done in headers only.
Types of bonding:
1. Header bond
2. Stretcher bond
3. English bond
4. Double bond
5. Single bond
6. Garden bond
7. Facing bond
8. Dutch bond
Raking bond
9. zigzag bond
10. English bond
11. Brick on edge bond
12. Bonds in columns
13. Bonds at junctions and squint junctions
STONES:
Building stones are obtained from rocks occurring in nature. It is estimated that 3/4th of the land area of the globe is under lane by sedimentary rocks and remaining 1/4th by igneous and metamorphic rocks. The various stone derived from these rocks are
Ø Principle stone from igneous rock are granite or basalt. And trap.
Ø Principle stones from sedimentary stones are sand stone, shale, limestone and lateride.
Ø Principle stones from metamorphic rocks are quartzite, shade, marble, schirt.
Properties of a good building stone:
A good building stone should posses such characteristics:
Ø High strength
Ø High durability
Ø Sufficient hardness
Ø High resistance would be a fire resistance
Ø Specific gravity
Ø Crystalline structure
Ø Low water absorption
Ø Facility for curving and dressing
Ø Weather resistance and better appearance.
Generally stones from igneous and metamorphic rocks are heavier and more durable than stones from sedimentary rocks.
Types and uses of building stone:
1. Granite: It is a very hard and durable building stone suitable for works of importance such as bridge equipments piers etc. where weight and durability are essential. It is not suitable for curving because of its crystalline structure. It is available in these places M.P, H.P, A.P, Maharastra, Assam, Bihar, West Bengle, Jammu and Kashmir, Orrisa, Gujarat, Punjab, Kerala, Rajasthan, and Mysore.
2. Basalt and Trappe: It is a very hard and tough compact and hence expensive in work. It is used in foundation of work usually but may be use for super structures also. It is not suitable for moldings. It is available in Maharastra, West Bengle, and M.P.
3. Sano Stone: It is very easy to dress and work. Extensively used in general construction work. It is available in Andobar Island, Kashmir, M.P, V.P, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
4. Lime Stone: It is used for flooring roofing, paving. It is used for general building purposes and manufacturing. It is available in Bengle, V.P, Rajasthan, Bihar, Andobar Island, H.P, M.P, V.P, Punjab, and Gujarat.
LATTERIDE: The stone is wet and soft when quartzite and should not be used until season for a month or two for achieving hardness. It is then cutted into rectangular blocks.
QUARTZITE: Silicon sand stones under the effect of metamorphic action. It is a very dense and strong stone with stratified structure and crystalline structure but breaks up into irregular shapes. It is difficult to dress and work. Quartzite is used for rubbled masonry. And also as aggiviate for concrete.
SLADES: These are metamorphic laminated rocks with plane of cleavage along which they can be split into very thin slabs. Slades are used as flooring and roofing material. Harder varieties of slades are used for dado works. These are available in Bihar, Mysore, U.P, Madras, M.P etc.
MARBLE: It is a compact crystalline stone formed by metamorphic stone action. It is one of the strongest and most durable varieties of lime stone. It is obtainable in varieties of colors. Plane or mixed from white to black. It can be easily cutted and curved and takes a high polish. It is extremely suitable for ornamental superior type of building work. It is also suitable for flooring and veneer work. It is available in V.P, M.P, A.P, Rajasthan, Mysore, Gujarat etc.
Suitability of types of stone for engineering works:
Ø Compact sand stones and granite are suitable for building in manufacturing town.
Ø Granites are suitable for building situated for sea shore
Ø Granite and basalt are suitable for paving work
Ø Sand stones, compact lime stone and quartzite are suitable for railway ballast
Ø Compact sand stones are suitable for structure where fire resistance is main requirement.
METALS
Choosing Metals: Its industrial requirement and hardness cool surfaces. Metal may not be seen as an oblivious choice for the home but in contemporary interiors. It is celebrated for those qualities.
Compare with other materials smooth metal finishes can provide pleasing contrast terms of colors, texture, and temperature adding to the sensual enjoyment of a space.
A metal has many uses in the field of construction and interior of home or commercial places etc.
From architectural element such as windows and staircases to kitchens and bathrooms fitting and all kinds of furniture’s and lighting.
Using metal like steel and aluminums to stair raiser, door, units, wall units and even ceiling (steel) create a very modern look or you can choose less commonly metals. Such as Zn, cu, or other surfaces and interior details.
From the environment point of view metal losses marks because of its high embedded energy. A redeemed fixture (good quality fixture) however is that, nearly all metal are recycled.
Metals are classified into two types 1. Ferrous and 2. Non ferrous.
1. Ferrous: These metal contain iron as their constituent and are obtained from iron ores which consists of compounds of irons, non metallic elements (sand, coal) and impurity such as carbon, manganese, phosphorous, silicon, sulphure). The crude impure iron extracted from iron ores is known as “pig iron”.
The properties of these three ferrous metals vary mainly because of its carbon percentage or carbon content in the metal.
2. Non Ferrous: These metals do not contain iron as their main constituent. Some of the non ferrous metal, such as aluminum, copper, brass, zinc, lead have limited use in the building industry.
Ferrous Metals:
Cast iron: It is manufactured by refining pig iron in cupola furnace old casting or scrap iron is sometimes added to improve the quality of cast iron, carbon content in cast iron varies from 1.7 to 4.5%. Cast iron can be readily distinguished from wrought iron. By its crystalline structure, by its want of ductility and its brittleness. Iron is the metal from which many alloys including steel are made and it is how generally used in modern building construction. Cast iron is so called because the molten iron is cast into moulds. It is strong and more resistant to corrosion than wrought iron. In home it is mostly used in bath tubs, fire bags, stove and some types of heavy duty pots and pans.
Cast iron is generally classified into three types:
1. Grey cast iron,
2. White cast iron,
3. Malleable cast iron.
1. Grey cast iron: It is softer and tougher than white cast iron and runs freely into moulds and can be machine. It is generally used for engineering works or ordinary castings.
2. White cast iron: It is very hard and brittle and is unsuitable for general casting into machine. It is mostly used for conversion of wrought iron malleable cast iron.
3. Malleable cast iron: It is annealed (raw) white cast iron from which some of its carbon has been extracted by heating to red hot which makes it stronger less brittle more malleable and ductile than ordinary cast iron. It is softer and tougher than grey cast iron. It is used for door hinges, pipe fitting, and hardware agricultural implements.
Properties of cast iron:
Cast iron is strong in compression. It is brittle and doesn’t observe shocks. When subjected to fire it fails suddenly without giving any warning. It cannot be welded easily or rolled. It cannot be punch like steel but it can be easily melted and cast into various shapes and machined. It melts at a temperature of about 2000deg faranite. It normally offers excellent resistance to corrosion as compared to any other ferrous metal. Cast iron is generally used for making water and seepage pipe, spiral staircases, manholes over rain water pipes, gutters, and sanitary fittings.
Wrought Iron:
It is the purest form of iron with low carbon content less than 0.15% it is made from white cast iron by removing most of the carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorous, and sulphur. Instead by being cast, this iron is stretched, hammered and twisted when in a hot and semi molten state.
Wrought iron can be used to make gated, windows, balusters, balustrades etc.
It has a tradition image by appointing a skilled craft man. You can get a unique piece of a wrought iron for a specific location.
Properties of wrought iron:
It passes the important quality of toughness ductility and malleability.
It can be easily welded at a temperature of 900deg c and their melting point is above 1500deg f.
It can be bent, twisted when either hot or cold.
Wrought iron rusts more quickly than cast iron.
Wrought iron is replaced at present to a great extend by milled steel.
Steel:
A metal alloy, steel is a mixture of iron with small properties of other metals. Added to enhance the irons performance.
There are many different products made from it and like iron which to date as a strongly traditional image. Steel is the self curiously modern material. So long as it in a dry environment steel should not corrode (become holes) and does not therefore need any special finish.
It can however be coated with paint or oil to seal it and exclude air that night damp (moist).
Steel can also be galvanized or electroplated with zinc to avoid corrosion or coated with a mixture of elements including carbon and copper which create a superficial rusty layer and there by protect the steel veneath.
Steel mesh or steel can be used on walls, stair tread and raiser and to form walkways and clad areas of floor specially where there is heavy traffic, the sheet can be grided or brushed. Usually found in a commercial environment, steel diamond plate flooring brings a modern, industrial quality to living space.
Stainless steel:
Stainless steel is more popular for use in interiors as it doesn’t rust. An alloy containing 20% nickel and chromium as a smooth and shiny finish that is immensely appending. The area of the home in which stainless steel is most widely used is kitchen. Inspired by the streamline, utitarean appearance of professional kitchen.
Designers created a sleek modern for domestic ones.
As the material stainless steel is almost maintenance free, any stains or marks quickly disappear under the friction of a scrub.
Bathroom bases, bathtubs have followed kitchen sinks and units though these are still expensive, exclusive items.
Steel is an alloy or compound of iron and carbon in the form of carboide of iron. The smaller the amount of carbon steel contained, the nearer will be its properties resembling those of wrought iron and greater the amount of carbon it posses nearer it will be approaching in properties to that of cast iron (0.25-1.25).
Properties of steel:
Steel are highly elastic, ductile, malleable, and wieldable. Steel is also flexible at a lower temperature than wrought iron steel have much higher compressive strength than wrought iron, steels are generally used for the following purposes:
1. As structural material in frames beams and light frames in the form of various sections.
2. As nonstructural component is used for grills, stairs, balustrade, windows and doors furniture’s etc.
3. Sanitary fittings.
4. Mechanical service in the form of steel pipes, tables, banks.
NON-FERROUS METALS:
1. Aluminum:
It is bluish, silvery, white custrous metal obtained from bauxite ore, pure aluminum is very soft and ductile and therefore it is alloyed with other. Metals like copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese etc. which increases its strength and hardness while retaining its characteristic of lightness and durability. Aluminum is highly resistance to corrosion and very good conductor of heat and electricity, its melting temperature is 658deg c. this light weight metal is associated with aircraft and the wheels of sprat’s car. In its iodized form aluminum is porous unlike steel or iron, aluminum resells rusting and is therefore a useful material for windows. Its light weight makes it ideal for cleaning surfaces both horizontal and vertical sheeting can have a simple brushed finish or can be embossed with geometric pattern. Both tiles and sheets can be used to make a light weight floor covering which levels an element of modernity to an interior. There are also a number of designers or light weight chairs or tables and most of door furniture are made from aluminum. It is also used for post panels and balustrade, partitions and for general purpose such as foils, wires.
2. Lead:
It is bluish grey in color with silvery luster when freshly cut. It is obtained from sulphide ore of lead. Lead is a very soft, highly ductile, malleable and non corrodible metal with low fusion point and very low strength. This metal is extremely resistant to atmospheric. Corrosion and is not effected by soil or industrial waste.
Uses: It is used for several purposes like lead sheets for roofing, water services pipes, and soil and gas pipes and for general purposes such as lead oxide for paints making bullets, alloys etc.
3. Copper:
It is attracted by melting coppery rifes (it is an ore of copper). Pure copper is of lustrous red colors and is intensively used for engineering purpose. It is a light strong, ductile and malleable metal with good properties of resistance to corrosion in dry air. It can be forced or rolled or otherwise worked hot and cold and join into wires. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Uses: copper is used for several purpose such as electric wires and cable sheet for roofing, lighting, protective devices, light gauge tubing for hot and cold water supply gas and sanitation services for general purpose such as protective coating for metals electroplating etc.
When it is new copper has a distinctive reddish oranges grow. The metal has a long life easy to work with and has a long uses such as wiring and piping. Copper can be used in kitchen like copper sheeting on the fronts of kitchen units. In the same way other metals and array of copper pans hanging from a rack gives a sticking visual appeals. In out doors copper reacts over times with carbonic acid in rain to acquire the distinctive green corrosion which looks attractive on cladding and loofing.
4. Brass:
It is an alloy of copper and zinc but various alloys are produced by varying the proportion of these metals and even adding minor proportion of other metals, properties of brass vary considerably by changing these proportions, most commercial brass are ductile and malleable at ordinary temperature and can be rolled into wires or last into moulds. Although colors are bright yellow when fresh but requires regularly cleaning.
Uses: Brass is used for several purposes such as fitting for doors and windows, stairs, grills, and finished hardware in buildings bearings for machinery. House hold utensils, furniture etc.
5. Bronze:
It is alloy of copper, zinc and tin and contains about 80% of copper. They are stronger and superior to brass for corrosion resistance properties. It is difficult to work with bronze and it is expensive.
6. Zinc:
Zinc is a malleable food safe metal. It is traditionally time on the counters of French bars. This metal is soft and abraded by use and so develops an attractive layer. When it is new zinc shade is bright and silvery its softness means the zinc can easily be folded, soldered and pinned over the surtales and around the counter tables, counter top and doors of kitchen units.
GLASS:
Glass is made by melting in a furnace at a very high temperature. A mixture of pure sand Fodor and clay with some amount of broken glass and then casting the molten mass into moulds into required shape.
Glass is transparent and hard and its needs to be cut with a diamond edge. The cost of glass depends on two factors.
1. Process of manufacturing, 2. Sizes available
Manufacturing of Glass:
1. Collection of Raw material.
2. Preparation of batch – material should be made in powder.
3. Melting in furnace.
4. Fabrication- Giving shape.
5. Annealing- Cooling.
The glass is a mixture of number of metallic silicates one of which is usually an alkali metal.
Various varieties of glass have been developed in recent times for various purposes and today it is possible to make glass lighter than a cork, softer than cotton or stronger than steel.
The varieties of glass are being used in building industries for various purposes such as walls, ceiling, door, windows, bathroom fittings and furniture’s.
Properties of glass:
1. It is basically hard, transparent and translucent material.
2. The properties such as hardness, fusibility can be change according to their required.
3. It is not effected by ordinary chemical agents like air and water.
4. It is possible to welt pieces of glass by fusions (melting).
5. It provides electric insulation due to uncertain crystalline structure.
6. It absorbs, refracts or transmits lights depending upon the varieties for a particular use.
7. It is available in various colors and shapes.
8. It has no shape melting points. Not effected by weather or heat.
9. It can be fabricated into desired shapes and sizes by heating and cooling.
Kinds of glass:
1. Crown glass: manufactured by means of a blow pipe which is dipped into molten glass and then blown into a gobular form which is than detach from the blown pipe which is than rotated on a flat disk until it is plotted out. This is generally convex used for glass tubes electrical bulbs.
2. Sheath glass or plain glass: This is made from blowing glass into a large hollow cylinder. These cylinders are later split longitudinally. This glass is used for windowpanes.
3. Plat glass: This is made by posing white hot molten glass over an iron table and holding it into a uniform thickness. Under a heavy metal roller. This is clear and stronger glass with few or more vitual distraction. This is used for large and small window panes. Mirror, showcases, shops, window displays etc.
4. Fluted or ritted glass: These is a wavy glass with corogation.it is used where privacy is required light is not obstructed.
5. Wirred or reinforced glass: This is basically plate glass with wire netting imbarded in it. It resists fire and doesn’t fall into pieces when fractured. It is used for fire resistance door and windows and skylight.
6. Ground or obscure glass: This is made either by grinding on one side of the glass or melting powered glass upon it. There is used where light is required without transparency.
7. Bullets prove glass: Used for jeweler’s show rooms, bank, wind, shutters of automobiles. This glass is made from at least 4 layers of glass and clear high-test plastic. This is a layer of plate glass joint by vinyl resin used for showcases, jewelers, casher booth etc.
8. Mirror: The other wise transparent surface is made reflect by laying a silver nitrate and ammonia which make a mirror.
9. Flint glass or potash lead glass: This type of glass is used for electrical bulb, optical lenses, table ware etc.
10. Hard glass or potash lime glass: this is used for making glass articles subjected to high temperature.
11. Pyrex glass or borosilicate glass: This type of glass is used in high quality laboratories apparatus and cooking utensils.
12. Common glass or bottle glass: these are used in making medicine bottles.
13. Laminated safety glass: this is a plastic or cellulite sheet between sheets of glass. This is used for fire resisting doors & windows. Thickness varies from 15mm-75mm. mostly used in commercial offices and bands etc.
14. Heat insulating glass: This is a glass sheet separated by air gap. These are used for window of railway coaches, hospitals, laboratory etc.
15. Obscured glass: the vision is obscured out but the light passes. Figured, ground, chopped, corrugated. These are used very privacy is required without obstructing light. Such as office doors, partition, doors, public toilets etc.
16. Tinted glass: such as V.V rays glass decoration. Light exclusion purpose such as windows of school, hospital etc. it permit light to pass through but reflects heat and sunlight from outside. It is not used in furniture it comes in 4 colors white, brown, grey and cream.
17. Glass block or brick: these are used for partition up to 6mt and for insulation purpose. These are used in restaurants and public building. It transmit light provides insulation against heat, cold and sound. Easy to clean. They are not load bearing and there is limit to the size of the wall. We get it in blue and grey colors.
18. Fiber glass: Composed of glass rods these are used for air filters to remove dust.
19. Foam glass or ground glass: This is substitute for cork in air conditioning and refrigeration industry.
20. Shielding glass: used for windows subjected to high radiation.
21. Structural glass or (sandwiched glass): this is made by joining two halves and pressing. The different sizes and shapes of this glass are used for insulating, paneled wall, partition wall, falling, daylight opening, and stair way enclosure.
22. Flat draw sheet glass: this is used for general engineering purpose.
23. Fluted sheet glass: (when one side is flushed) used for blazing high grade work such as cabinet blazing.
24. Soda lime glass: Cheaply available, clean and clear variety used in manufacturing glass tubes, other glass apparatus.
25. Colored glass: It is made by different colored pigment, metals, sulphates etc. it is used for various purpose door, fancy decorative articles.
26. Safety glass: Made by placing cellular between two sheets of plain glass, they are of three types tampered, laminated, wired.
27. Itched glass: It can be readily dissolved by concentrated hydrofluoric cabinets, various others places, where there is need of light.
28. Plain glass: It is also type of float glass used in making furniture doors, shelves, table tops etc. the thickness varies from 3mm to 19mm. 3mm to 6mm is used for windows.
29. Flat glass: Used for dressing table, side tables etc. comes in four different colors. Grey, green, bronze, cyan.
30. Toughened glass: used where high risk of breakage or accident. Even if this glass breaks. It will be harmless; it is used for door panels, doors, table tops. (It is not sharp it can touch with free hand). Now a day it is also widely used for automobile transport industries.
31. Figured glass: These kinds of glasses are opaque with no transparency they are mostly used for windows, doors, partition.
WALL FINISHES:
Walls have the largest area in any room, which is four times the floor area. Walls can set the mood of the room. It can warm it or cool it, expand it or contract it.
Wall treatment are mainly divided into
1. Wall painting
2. Wall papers
3. Wall paneling
4. Wall cladding
5. Glass
1. Walls Painting: There are wide varieties of paints available in the market. In painting of walls we should take care of the activities to be performed. In an interiors paints are classified into mainly two categories 1, Interior paints 2, Exterior paints
Paints provide a protective larger to the walls at the same times gives a decorative look to the room.
What is paint?
Basically paint is a mixture of four elements
1. “Solvent” which enables into brush.
2. “Binders” bind the paint to the wall.
3. “Pigment” which gives the paint color and capacity.
4. “Addities” which lends special properties.
Why must a surface be painted?
Over a period of time every surface is expased to a number of factors, which defaces its beauty and weaken it. Paint helps to protect such surface and keep them looking good.
Paint Finish:
For interior there are different types of paints available that can be applied directly on the walls. Paints are the least expensive material to cover walls. You may select any one out of the distemper oil bound distemper, Acrylic or synthetic enamel to suit your pocket.
Ø White wash/lime wash
Ø Distemper paints
Ø Matt finish paints
Ø Emulsion paints
These paints are available in both interior and exterior grade. It is easy to use, before applying the paints the surface is to be cleaned properly. These are available in powder or liquid form.
Wall putty finish: Putty provides white, smooth and dry surface for painting. It comes in ready mix and can be made manually.
Application: The wall surface to be painted is first cleaned with the wire brush, the primer is applied on the wall then three coats of putty is applied on the wall and then three coats of paints is applied on the wall. The performance of the surface on which it is applied. Premier plays on important role in durability of the paints. It provides a protective interface between the surface and the finishing coat. Premier also smoothens and increases the capacity of the finishing coat.
Matt finish and buster finish: Solvent based very durable and best suited to bathroom and kitchen walls. For interior, cement paints is most commonly used because it seems economical but cement paints wet the walls with water and after applying the paints cure the wall for two days after gap of 24 hours.
Note: All plaster, cement or concrete surfaces should be made firm and even and wiped clean. It is been repainted, loose planking paint should be scrapped off and surface sand papered.
Directions on the planking regarding the thinning and mining of the paint must be read carefully and contents must be smooth, dry and free from greesed and dirt allow the forest coat to dry. Completely before applying the 2nd one. No matter what color is used it must be kept in mind that color seen in color chat look much darker when it is seen on wall.
2. WALL PAPER:
Wall papers are available in wide range of color, pattern and finishes. There are wall papers to complement any décor schemes and finishes, designed to wear well in a variety of situations. Washable wall papers are coated with a thin transparent resin while vinyl wall paper is treated with a thin PVC coating. Embossed wall papers are also available now which provide on attraction. Textured effect wall paper provides almost all endless number of solutions to various decoration needs to soften irregular architectural features create colors schemes or even used to blend cabinets or appliances into the back ground.
Flora, Glamour, Krast, Senic wallpaper, beautiful photos, Mura Island sceneries is also available in wall papers.
Mini prints are the best choice for small rooms, small geometric, linear prints, and small floral and similar patterns can be satisfactory used in bed rooms. Longer patterns will look better in large spaces like drawing room. Vertical stripes will make low ceiling seen higher and horizontal stripes will broaden out a space.
3. WALL PANELLING:
Paneling is done for an acoustics or decorative purpose. There are various types of material used for wall paneling like wood ply, blocks wood etc. Paneling can change the look at the wall without painting it and can help to improve the appearance of interior. The type of material used for paneling depends on the activity performed. In the theaters and auditorium material with good acoustics should be used any decorative paneling.
4. WALL CLADDING:
Wall cladding is done for easy cleaning and maintenance. It can be done with tiles or metal ceramic. Tiles are durable for wall covering of toilets and kitchens marbles and other tiles are used in recent times for decoration and easy maintenance. Metals like aluminum, copper, and stainless steel are also used for cladding because they are hard, easy to clean and decorative. The choice of tiles or metal cladding because they are hard, easy to clean and decorative. The choice of tiles or metal cladding depends on the use of interior.
5. GLASS:
Mirror can be successfully used to create the illusion of extra space. Mirrored walls will give added length or depth to the room use mirror to cover all entire walls to double the space. Large mirror panels can be cladded to the walls. Using ply wood or block board for backing. Mirror the ceiling of a small room and a small low space becomes double height.
FLOORING
The purpose of the floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupant of a building, furniture, requirement and sometimes internal partitions.
A floor must satisfy the following requirement
1. Adequate strength and stability.
2. Adequate fire resistance
3. Sound
4, Damp resistance
5. Thermal insulation
The floor resting directly on the ground surface are known as ground floor while the other floor of each storey situated above the ground level are known as upper floors.
Components of a floor
A floor is composed of two essential components
1. Sub floor, base case or floor base
2. Floor connecting or simple flooring
The floor base is a structural component that supports the floor covering. Ground floors may either rest directly on the ground or may be supported a little distance above the ground. The floor supported directly on the ground are known as solid floors while the floors supported above the ground level are called suspended floors they are made of timber.
Materials of Construction
Materials used for construction of ground floor are
1. Cement Concrete
2. Lime Concrete
3. Stone
4. Bricks
5. Wooden blocks (for wooden flooring only)
FLOORING OF DIFFERENT MATERIAL
1. Mud and Murram Flooring:
These are used in low cost housing especially in villages. This flooring is cheap, easy to construction and easy to maintain. It has good thermal insulation due to which it remains cool in summer and fairly warmed in winter. Murram is also known as disintegrated rock floor. This flooring has practically the same properties as that of mud flooring.
2. Brick flooring:
Such flooring is used in economical construction where good brick are available. This flooring is essential suited to ware house, stores, go downs etc. well burnt bricks of good colors and uniform shapes are used. (Wire cut bricks are used for flooring).
3. Flag Stone Flooring:
Flag stone is an laminated sand stone available in 2cm-4cm thickness in the form squares (30cmx30cm, 45x45, 60x60.) or rectangular (45x60) this type of work is called paving. (Generally used in exterior landscaping)
4. Cement Concrete Flooring:
This is used for residential, commercial and even industrial building, since the moderately cheap, quite durable and easy to construct. Floor consists of two components 1) Base concrete 2) Topping a wearing surface.
5. Grantithic Finish:
In industrial building hard wearing surface 0’ is sometimes required. This can be achieved by applying grantithic finish over the concrete topping this finish consist of rich concrete made with very hard and tough quality course such as granite, basalt, quartzite etc. The thickness of finish may be minimum 25mm. When laid monolithically with the over hardened surface for public buildings such as schools, hospitals etc. The thickness of finish may be 13mm-20mm.
6. Terrazzo Flooring:
This flooring is another type of floor finish that is laid on the concrete topping. It is very decorative and has good wearing properties due to this it is widely used in residential buildings, hospitals, offices, schools, or other public buildings. Terrazzo specially purposed concrete surface containing cement and marble chips of different colors. The flooring is however bit expensive.
7. Mosaic Flooring: (Chips of stones)
It is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of cement or of marble arranged in different pattern. These pieces are cut to desired shapes and sizes.
8. Tile Flooring:
It is constructed in the form of square hexagonal or other shapes. Made of clay (pottery) cement concrete or terrazzo. These are available in the different sizes and thickness. These are commonly used in residential places, offices, schools, hospitals and other public building as an attractive to terrazzo flooring specially where the floor laid quickly (ceramic: made of clay. Top covering is made of porcelain)
(vitrified: whole tile is made of same material)
9. Marble Granite Flooring:
It is superior type of flooring used in bathrooms, kitchen, sanitary, temples etc, where extra cleanliness is an essential requirement. Usually in rectangular manner as that for concrete flooring.
10. Timber Flooring:
This flooring is used for parliamentary halls, dining halls, auditorium etc. They are not commonly used in residential buildings in India because timber flooring is also quite costlier. In hilly areas where timber is cheaply and readily available and where temperature drops very slowly. Timber flooring is the damp prevention this can be done by introducing the DPC layer below the flooring.
DPC- Damp proof course
(Fixing process: fixed with the help of groove).
11. Rubber Flooring:
It consists of sheets or tiles of rubber variety of pattern and color with thickness varying from 3-10mm. The sheet or a tile is manufactured by mining pure rubber with tiles such as cotton fiber, granulated cork or asbestos fiber. Rubber flooring are resistant and noise proof. However they are costly they are used in offices, public buildings.
12. Linoleum Flooring:
It is a covering which is available in rolls and which is spread directly on concrete or wooden flooring. This sheet is manufactured by mixing oxidized linseed oil in gum resins, pigments, wood flour, cork dust and other filler materials. Linoleum tiles are also available which can be fixed to concrete based or wood floor in different pattern. It can’t be used in bathroom, kitchens etc.
13. Cork Flooring:
This flooring is perfectly noiseless and is used in libraries, theaters, art gallery, board casting stations etc. Cork is the outer bark of the cork oak tree. Available in the form of the cork carpet and work tiles. They are available in various sizes, thickness and shades.
14. Glass Flooring:
It is a special purpose flooring used in circumstances where it is desired to transmit light to the basement from the upper floor. It is very costly and is not commonly used.
15. Plastic or polyvinyl chloride (PVC):
It is made of plastic called polyvinyl chloride fabricated in the form of tiles of different sizes and color shades; these are used in residential as well as non residential buildings. It is smooth and good looking but can be damaged easily when in contact with burning object. Available in 1mm, 2mm, and 3 mm. it is fire retardant.
Silicon Flour- (it is the apoxy) is a powder to dry soon.
White cement- observes dust.
Latierate (white cement only)-it don’t observes dust.
Apoxy- combination of glass thin layer (this can be done on marble to avoid to absorb anything).
RAMP
They are sloping surfaces used to provide an easy connection between floors. They are specially used for when large number of people or vehicles are to be moved from floor to floor. They are usually provided at places such as garages, railway stations, stadiums, office buildings and exhibition halls. Sometimes they are provided in special purpose buildings such as hospitals, schools for physically handicapped students etc. they should be constructed with non slip surface.
Ramps are generally given a slope of 15% but a slope of 10% is proffered. The space required for ramp is more. The ramp need not be straight for the whole distance. It can be curved, zigzagged or spiral.
ESCALATORS
These are powered stairs. They are used when it is necessary to move large number of people from floor to floor.
These stairs have continuous operation without the need for operators. They have large capacity with low power consumption. These escalators are in the form of an inclined bridge spanning between floors. The components of an escalator consist of a steel trussed frame work, hand rails, an endless belt with steps. At the upper ends of an escalator there is a pair of motor driven, sprocket wheels and a warm gear driving machine. At the lower end the matching pair of sprocket wheels is provided. Two processions made rider chains traveled over the sprockets. Pulling the endless belt of steps which more on an accurately made. Set of tracks attach to the trusses with each step supported four odless. They are generally operated at a speed of 30 or 40mts per minute. Slope of stairs is standardizing at 30. Escalators should be installed when traffic is heaviest and convenient for passengers. Escalators are generally installed in pair (one of up and one for down) one of them is used for carry up going traffic and the other for traffic moving down.
ELEVATORS
Ø Elevators are used in building having more than 4 storeys. They are used for providing vertical transportation.
Ø They can either electric traction elevators or hydrolic elevators.
Ø Electric traction elevators are used exclusively in tall buildings. Hydrolic elevators are generally used for low raised flight service which rise up to 6 storey and they may also be used for low rise passenger’s service.
Ø The different components of an electric traction elevator are the car or cab, hoist wire ropes, dragging machine, control equipment, and counter weight hoist way rails, rent house and pit.
Ø The car is a cage of liter metal supported on a structural frame, to the top of which the wire ropes are attached.
Ø The ropes raise and lower the car in the shaft. They pass over a grooved motor driven sheave and are fasten to the counter weights.
Ø The paths of both the counter weights and the car are controlled by sets of T- shaped guide rails.
Ø The control and operating machinery may be located in a pent house above the shaft or in the basement.
Ø Safety springs or buffers are placed in the pit, to bring car or counter weight to a safe stop.
Ø For elevators serving, more than three floors should be provided with means for venting smoke and hot gases the hoist ways to the outer air in case of fire.
Ø Vents may be located in the enclosure just below the upper most floors with direct openings to the outside or with non combust able dust connections.
Technical term used in elevator description:
1. Anunciator: This is an electrical device which indicates usually by lights, the floors at which floor. Elevator landing signal has been registered.
2. Buffer: This is a device for stopping a descending car or counter weight beyond its bottom terming by absorbing and disporting the kinetic energy of the car or counter weights. If the absorbing medium is oil it is known as oil buffers or if the absorbing medium is spring it is termed as spring buffers.
3. Car or Cab: This is the load carrying element of an elevator including car platform, car frame and car doors orgate.
4. Car Frame: This is the supporting frame to which the car platform, hoisting ropes of an elevator are attached.
5. Car door electric contact: This is an electrical device for preventing normal operations of the driving machine unless the car door or gate is closed.
6. Machine: This is the power unit for raising and lowering an elevator car.
7. Control (Controllers): This is a system governing the starting stopping, direction of motion and speed of the car.
8. Emergency stop switch: This is the car located device that when operated manually, causes the car to be stopped by disconnecting electric power from the driving machine.
9. Hoist way: This is a shaft for travel of one or more elevators. It extends from the bottom of the pit to the underside of the overhead machine room.
10. Hoist way door locking device: This is the device for preventing the hoist way door or gate from being opened from the landing side unless the car has stopped within the landing zone.
11.Levelling Device: This is a mechanism for moving the car that is within a short distance of a landing an automatic maintains two way leveling device will keep the car floor level with the landing during loading and unloading.
12. Parking Device: This is a device for opening the hoist way door from the landing side at any landing. When the car is within the landing zone.
13. Travel: This is a vertical distance between top and bottom terminal landing.
14. Pit: This is a portion of a hoist way below the lowest landing.
15.Signal Operation: This starts and stops a car automatically as landing are reached, in response to actuation of buttons in the car or pit landing, irrespective of car travel or sequence in which buttons are actuated.
16. Travelling Cable: This is a cable containing electrical conductors for providing electrical connections between the car and the fixed outlet in a hoist way.
PAPER- 1
1. Introduction to interior designing (purpose)
2. Design concept
3. Lines, lettering
4. Orthographic Projection ‘2d’
5. Metric Projection ‘3d’
6. Color theory, wheel
7. Carpentry and joinery
8. Types of kitchen
9. Doors and Windows
PAPER-2 (Materials)
1. Wood
2. Metal
3. Glass
4. Laminates, Ply wood
5. Tiles
6. P.O.P
7. Curtains
8. Paints
9. Carpets and rugs
10. Bricks
11. Upholstery
12. Hardware
13. Landscaping.
PAPER-3 (Services & Estimations) PAPER-4 (Particles)
1. Staircase 1. Concept Designing
2. Electrical Layout 2. Product “ “
3. A.C 3. Furniture “ “
4. Acoustics 4. Specification of material
5. Plumbing
6. Ceiling PAPER-5
7. Flooring. 1. Portfolio
2. Viva Voce.
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